in the units of high level.
E.g.:
2. Even casual comparison of such word form as dogs, boys, with the
corresponding dog, boy, will show that the 1st set may be split into 2
grammatically significant elements (+), which, on the one hand, convey
the meaning, and on the other, cause the certain agreement between the words in
a sentence. Thus, we say: "The dog sleeps in a kennel", but "The dogs sleep in a
kennel. The form "dog" can't be divided into future grammatically significant
elements. Further division may be only phonologically. The described minimal
grammatical units are called morphemes. They are delimited by comparing word
form with one another and by singling out the recurrent pieces that compose
them. A word may consist of 1 or more morphemes, each morpheme them conveys a
particular lexical or grammatical meaning.
The morpheme - is the smallest meaningful, further indivisible recurrent
component of a word or a word form.
3. If the approach from the point of view of speech, we can observe the
following phenomenon: the morphemes like words may exhibit different forms in
the process of speaking. It depends on their position within the word. E.g.: the
regular formative of the plural number morpheme "s" may be represented in speech
in different ways.
In languageIn speech
[s] - book
- (e)s[z] - boys
[iz] - boxes
Allomorphs are speech variants of morphemes.
At the basis of allo-emic elements lies the division into language and speech.
The term morphemes stands for the whole grammatically relevant class of forms.
They belong to language. It is an abstract entity which expresses particular
grammatical meaning. Em-terms denote generalized invariants of language,
characterized by a certain functional status ( Allo-morphes denote the concrete
manifestation of invariants, of the generalized units, dependent on the regular
colligation with other elements of the language.
Invariants are abstract. The allo-morphs (or variant morphemes ) like [s], [z],
[iz] are phonologically predictable, but we have many examples of allo-morphs ,
which can't be explained by usage of speech criteria. Thus, the English plural
form of the word "ox" - "oxen" is grammatically parallel to "dogs". "En" is an
irregular form of the plural number. There are other irregular forms:
"children", "geese". Professor Robins considered them to be allo-morphs of the
plural number morphemes. According to the tradition, which goes back to Panini
Grammar, such specific forms as......... are considered by linguists as having
any form (0 form ) of plural number.
??????????
There is another group of words which have a specific morphemic structure:
E.g.:"man - men", "tooth - teeth". The plural forming morpheme is represented
not by any recurrent formative like [s], but a process of root vowel
interchange. E.g.: [ж] - [e] etc.
We are dealing here with infix morphemes. Such word forms are rarely survivals
of the specific morphemic structure of Old English. To simplify the complicated
system of analysis, professor Ilysh V.A. and others refer all the speech
exhibits of the plural number morphemes to the allo-morphs of the plural number
morphemes, which graphically may be depicted as following:
Language Speech
plural number morphemes [s], [z], [iz], [ш], [ж]--[e], [f]--[vz],[u]--[i].
The analysis and classification of different phonological forms in which
morphemes appear, both in individual languages and in languages
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in general is
called Morphonology, which is the same as morphophonemics. When discussing the
different forms of the English plural number morphemes we applied the
morphophonological analysis.
4. There are two criteria in classifying morphemes:
1). Positional
2). Functinal (semantic).
According to positional criterion morphemes are divided into: root morphemes and
affixal morphemes (affixes,{prefixes, infixes, suffixes}). In other words, root
morphemes are called free morphemes, while affixal are bound morphemes. A free
morpheme is vand ?. a bound morpheme is one, that must appear with at least one
other morpheme, bound or free. E.g.: "work"+"ed".
Root morphemes are unlimited in number. Affixes are bound morphemes, they are
limited in number, and may be exhaustedly elisted. Some words have more than one
morpheme, they are compound words. E.g.: " bird-cherry ", "scare-crow". In
English the majority of roots are free. But nevertheless there are bound root
morphemes. They are the following.
E.g.: receive, conceive
retain, contain
transfer, refer.
Affix is a term denoting recurrent formative morphemes, other than roots.
From the point of view of formal presentation we distinguish: overt [ouvit] and
covert [kA vit]. Overt morphemes are represented explicitly: "retell", "asked";
covert morphemes coincide with 0(zero morpheme). Every morpheme is the smallest
meaningful unit, thus "ed" conveys the morpheme of Past tense. We should
differentiate form-building morphemes (that are grammatical) and word-building
morphemes (they are lexical).
E.g.: movement , outline - word-building morphemes
asked, asks, getting - form-building morphemes
5. Form-building morpheme is called word changing. Modern English extremely poor
according to the word-changing, but there are some.
1). Affixation.
It is the use of epithets. E.g.: "bus" - "buses".
Only Suffixation is used in modern English. Prefixation was productive in old
English period. For the formation of perfect participle
2). Sound Interchange.
Vowel interchange Consonant interchange
3). Supplative forms
"bad" - "worse" - "worst"
"go" - "went" - "gone"
"be", "is", "are", "am" - "was", "were" - "been".
All of 1), 2), 3) - belong to the syntactic way of form-building.
4). Analytical forms are particular word-combinations, made up of an auxiliary
or
a notional word.
LECTURE 4.
Analytical forms are very productive in modern English
Grammar deals with form-building .
is.....................................................ing
have................................................en frames
was..................................................ed
continuous morphemes
The matter is, that the analytical ???????? (can be put) consist of two
meaningful morphemes. Analytical morphemes are not free word combination like "a
red rose", neither are phraseological units like " red tape"(burocracy).
Analytical forms can't be compared with words, they are word forms like
synthetic forms, performing a definite grammatical function.
The word
1. The definition of the word.
2. The characteristic features of the word.
3. The two planes of the word.
The word is the main object of lexicology as well. It is not easy to give
rigorous definition of the word. Since it is very complex and many sided
phenomenon. The term "word" denotes the basic unit of a given language,
resulting from the associations of a particular meaning with the particular
group of sounds, capable of the particular grammatical
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